Consumer Behaviour-Travel and Tourism Essay Example for Free

Consumer Behaviour-Travel and Tourism Essay I want to do this! Whats This? .. . suitcases image by Alexander Ivanov from Fotolia. com Many factors influence travel and tourism consumer behavior. As of 2010, the global travel industry contributed 9. 2 percent of the worlds total gross domestic product, according to the World Travel and Tourism Council. People travel for work, to visit family and friends and for pleasure. When it comes to making choices about where and how to travel, multiple factors influence travel and tourism consumer behavior. Global Economy. Travel is often seen as a luxury, and when people are earning less or worried about earning less, they may eliminate travel from their budgets. As the world economy struggled in 2009 and into 2010, the travel industry suffered along with other businesses. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, global travel and tourism was down nearly 5 percent in 2009, specifically due to a struggling economy. Still, as the economy bounces back, the tourism industry will as well. The World Travel and Tourism Council predicts a 3. 2 percent growth in the travel and tourism industry in 2011. Internet and Social Media Consumers have instant access to reviews and opinions about travel spots and accommodations around the world, as well as airlines, car rental agencies and other related travel companies. More and more, people turn to the Internet to research potential trips and seek out bargains. Thus, the Internet and social media can influence consumers travel choices. According to The Digital Letter, reviews on sites like TripAdvisor can make or break a destination. Prospective travelers can read reviews and find out if others found the hotel to be clean and the staff courteous, or if the service [they will] receive is worthy of [their] time and money. The Digital Letter points out that travelers can learn everything they want to know about a destination in a matter of minutes on sites such as Facebook, Twitter and Google. While a businesss website can also play a factor in consumer choice, if independent online reviews arent consistent with the companys claims, travelers are likely to make a different selection. Personal Budgets Even with a bad economy, some people still need or want to travel. In 2010, savvy travelers have many ways to find deals online and cut their costs before heading out the door. Airlines offer online specials for discount flights and last-minute trips, and companies such as Kayak exist solely to gather the best travel deals on the Internet into one place, so shoppers can compare prices. Travelers no longer need to rely on the standard price for transportation or accommodations. They may now make their travel choices based solely on price. .

Methods to Assess Groundwater Potential by Spring Locations

Methods to Assess Groundwater Potential by Spring Locations Abstract Regarding the ever increasing issue of water scarcity in different countries, the current study plans to apply support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), and genetic algorithm optimized random forest (RFGA) methods to assess groundwater potential by spring locations. To this end, 14 effective variables including DEM-derived, river-based, fault-based, land use, and lithology factors were provided. Of 842 spring locations found, 70% (589) were implemented for model training, and the rest of them were used to evaluate the models. The mentioned models were run and groundwater potential maps (GPMs) were produced. At last, receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve was plotted to evaluate the efficiency of the methods. The results of the current study denoted that RFGA, and RF methods had better efficacy than different kernels of SVM model. Area under curve (AUC) of ROC value for RF and RFGA was estimated as 84.6, and 85.6%, respectively. AUC of ROC was computed as SVM- linear ( 78.6%), SVM-polynomial (76.8%), SVM-sigmoid (77.1%), and SVM- radial based function (77%). Furthermore, the results represented higher importance of altitude, TWI, and slope angle in groundwater potential. The methodology produced in the current study could be transferred to other places with water scarcity issues for groundwater potential assessment and management. Key words: Geographic information system, Ardebil, Iran, Support vector machine, Random forest, Genetic algorithm Introduction Water scarcity is regarded as one of the most substantial soicio-environmental challenges in different countries. The demand on groundwater is increasing, and the overexploitation of this valuable resource is threatening future generations (Todd and Mays 2005; Rekha and Thomas 2007); Thus, its management is believed to be vital. A better water resources management plan would be possible when there is enough knowledge about the resources (i.e. high potential and susceptible zones). In recent years, researchers have made use of a variety of models to map groundwater potential such as frequency ratio (FR), weight of evidence (WofE), logistic regression (LR), index of entropy, evidential belief function (Oh et al. 2011; Ozdemir 2011a, b; Pourtaghi and Pourghasemi 2014; Davoodi Moghaddam et al. 2015; Naghibi and Pourghasemi 2015; Naghibi et al. 2015). Also, some researchers used machine learning methods including boosted regression tree (BRT), classification and regression (CART), general linear model (GLM), and RF algorithms in this field of study (Naghibi and Pourghasemi 2015; Rahmati et al. 2016). Lee et al (2012) employed artificial neural network (ANN) to assess groundwater productivity. Their results showed satisfactory performance of ANN. Recently [M1]Naghibi et al. (2017) used four recently developed data mining models including AdaBoost, Bagging generalized additive model, and naÃÆ' ¯ve bayes for groundwater potential mapping. They have also introduced a novel ensemble method from combination of the mentioned models and FR. In addition, Magaji et al. (2016) used geographic information system and evidential belief function model to produce groundwater recharge potential zones map. Theodossiou (2004) investigated how climate change influences the sustainability of groundwater in watershed-scale in Greece. Furthermore, Thivya et al. (2016) conducted a study to identify recharge mechanisms of groundwater in hard rock aquifers implementing stable isotopes. Support vector machine (SVM) algorithm has been employed in different fields of study such as flood susceptibility assessment (Tehrany et al. 2014; Tehrany et al. 2015), and landslide susceptibility investigation (Brenning 2005; Kavzogluetal 2014; Tien Bui et al. 2012; Yao et al. 2008; Yilmaz 2010; Tien Bui et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2017) with suitable efficacy. Genetic algorithm is one of the most advanced and pervasive developed heuristic search techniques in artificial intelligence and its application has been done in many fields of study including urban planning, ecological, climatic modelling, and remote sensing studies (Hasegava et al. 2013; Termansen et al. 2006; Chang et al. 2006; Chen et al. 2009). In the current study, we aim to investigate the performance of a novel method for optimization of random forest and its results are compared with RF and SVM models in groundwater potential mapping. Based on the literature review, application of different kernels of SVM and RFGA in groundwater potential mapping are two main novelties of this study. Also, the importance of different effective factors in groundwater potential is discussed. The results of the current study could determine high potential and susceptible groundwater potential zones and be used by water resource managers. Material and Methods Figure 1 shows the methods and the flowchart implemented in the current study. Study Area: The study area lies from 48 ° 18à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ² 26à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³ to 48 ° 53à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ² 16à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³ eastern longitudes and from 37 ° 41à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ² 23à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³ to 37 ° 09à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ² 26à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³ northern latitudes in Ardebil Province, Iran (Fig. 2). It covers an area of 1,524 km2. The elevation in the study area ranges from 840 to 3,320 m above sea level with an average of 1,930 m. The mean annual precipitation of Khalkhal region is measured as 345 mm. The mean annual temperature of Khalkhal region is 12 degrees Centigrade. In the respect of land use, 89.69% of Khalkhal region is covered by rangeland, and other land use classes are forest, agriculture, orchard, and residential areas. In the respect of lithology, Khalkhal region comprises of 14 lithological categories. Eav class (andesitic volcanic) covers most of the study area. Khalkhal region is located in Ardebil province of Iran which includes 14 hydrological watersheds. The se watersheds are located in three main parts including central part, Khoresh Rostam, and Shahrood areas. In this area people exploit water resources by wells (42%), springs (47%), and qanats (11%); therefore, it can be seen that a high percent of the water requirement is obtained by springs. Data preparation Spring characteristics The springs location map was prepared for the study area using national reports (Iranian Department of Water Resources Management) and extensive field surveys in 1:50,000 scale. From 842 springs identified in the study area, 70% (589 springs) were considered for training purpose, and 30% (253 springs) were used as validation dataset (Fig. 2). Approximately ninety percent of the springs are permanent and ten percent of them are seasonal. Discharge of the springs in Khalkhal region alters between 0.1 and 100 liters per second having an average of 1 liter per second. It can be seen that there are different kinds of spring in the study area such as contrast, drainage, and fracture springs with 5.34%, 29.81%, 58.08%, and 6.77% of the springs, respectively. The average pH of the springs is measured as 6.68. The average electric conductivity (EC) of the springs is measured as 470 . Groundwater effective factors In this study, based on the literature review (Ozdemir 2011a, b; Oh et al. 2011; Naghibi et al. 2017), fourteen groundwater effective factors such as altitude, slope angle, slope aspect, plan curvature, profile curvature, slope length (LS), SPI, TWI, distance from rivers, river density, distance from faults, fault density, land use, and lithology were provided and mapped. The digital elevation model (DEM) of the Khalkhal region was created using the 1:50,000-scale topographic maps in 20 m resolution. Groundwater effective-factors such as altitude, slope angle, and slope aspect were prepared using DEM in ArcGIS 9.3 and represented in Fig. 3a-c. Plan curvature describes the divergence and convergence of flow and discriminates among basins (Fig. 3d). Profile curvature shows the rate at which the slope gradient alters in the direction of maximum slope (Catani et al. 2013) (Fig. 3e). Slope length is the combination of the slope length and slope steepness that shows soil loss potential from the combined slope features (Fig. 3f). SPI is a measure of the erosive power of flowing water based on the assumption that discharge is relative to specific catchment area (Moore et al. 1991) (Fig. 3g). The TWI affects accumulation and movement of surface runoff over the land surface (Elmahdy and Mostafa Mohamed 2014) (Fig. 3h). Distance from rivers and river density were created using topographical map of Khalkhal region (Fig. 3i, j). Also, distance from fault and fault density layers were produced using geological map (Fig. 3k, l). The land use map was created using Landsat images (Fig 3m). There are five land use classes in the study area such as agriculture, forest, orchard, rangeland, and residential area. Most of the study area is covered by the rangeland land use class. The lithology map was acquired using a 1:100,000-scale geological map and the lithological units were grouped into fourteen classes (GSI 1997, Fig. 3n, Table 1). Support vector machines (SVM) SVM is known as a supervised machine learning technique that is performed based on the (SRM: structural risk minimization) principle and statistical learning theory (Tien Bui et al. 2012). SVM transforms original input space into a higher-dimensional feature space to find an optimum separating hyper plane. Marjanovic ´ et al (2011) affirmed that separating hyper-plane is built in the original space of n coordinates between the points of two distinct classes. If the point is situated over the hyper-plane it will be classified as positive 1, if not, it will be classified as negative 1. Penalty (C) controls the trade-off between margin and training errors, which assists to prevent the models over-fitting (Marjanovic ´ et al. 2011). The kernel width (É ¤) controls the degree of nonlinearity of the model (Tien Bui et al. 2012). Parameter (d) is the polynomial degree in the PL kernel function and (r) is the bias term in the kernel function for two kernels of SVM including PL and SIG kernels (Tehrany et al. 2014). In the current study, the 10-fold cross-validation was used to select the optimal kernel parameters of SVM (Pradhan 2013; Zhuang and Dai 2006). Random forest (RF) model Random forests (RFs) are very flexible and powerful ensemble classifiers based on decision trees which were firstly developed by Breiman (2001). RF constructs multiple trees based on random bootstrapped samples of the training dataset (Breiman 2001). The algorithm runs random binary trees that implement a subset of the observations over bootstrapping approach, of the initial dataset a random choice of the training data is selected and implement to create the model, the data which is not included are described as out of bag (OOB) (Catani et al. 2013). The RF predicts the importance of a variables by looking at how much the error of prediction increases when out of bag data for that variable is permuted while all others are left fixed (Liaw and Wiener 2002; Catani et al. 2013). Random forests need two parameters to be tuned including the number of trees (ntree), and the number of variables (mtry). Genetic algorithm (GA) model A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search heuristic which mimics the natural selection process in the field of artificial intelligence. GA beings with a population of presented random solutions in some structure series. Then, a number of operators are repeatedly implemented, until convergence is obtained. As a matter of fact, the optimization strategy in GA could be described as a global optimization procedure with the benefit of not being dependent on the initial value to gain the convergence. Crossover and mutation are implemented to produce newer and better chromosomes populations (Yetilmezsoy and Demirel 2008). Random forest optimization methods In this study, we used two different methods for RF parameter optimization including caret package and genetic algorithm. Both of the models were applied in the R software. At first, we presented a hybrid RFGA model to predict groundwater potential which was firstly introduced by Hasegawa et al (2013) in the field of commute mode choice analysis. A simple method is trial and error, but there are many mixtures of parameters, and it needs much iteration to evaluate the options. Another method for optimization of these parameters is to use caret package. So, we proposed a practical method for optimizing the parameters of RF by meta- heuristic optimization using GAs. The rgenoud package of the R program (R Core Team 2012); Mebane and Sekhon (2011) were used to implement the optimizing process of RF parameters ntree and mtry. Input parameters of the RFGA model are subject to the GA-based parameter optimization process. Only that pair of parameters that minimizes the OOB error rate in this step is used as input to the RFGA model. For running RFGA, maximum number of generations was considered as 100, the population size was 300 and the domain of allowable valu es for each parameter of the function being optimized (mtry values between 1 and 14, ntree values between 1 and 2000). The run time of this process till the calculation is complete was approximately 2 h 20 min. Validation of groundwater potential maps (GPM) In the current study, receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve was used to determine the performance of the GPMs produced using the implemented models. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) shows the quality of a forecast system by representing the ability of the system to predict correctly the occurrence or nonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ occurrence of specific events (Negnevitsky 2002). The area under the curve of ROC ranges from 0 to 1. The qualitative relationship between AUC and prediction accuracy could be classified as excellent (0.9-1), very good (0.8-0.9), good (0.7-0.8), average (0.6-0.7), and poor (0.5-0.6). Based on the reviewer comment, and in order to consider the discharge values of the springs, two weights were assigned to the springs to take their discharge into account in the evaluation process. For conducting this idea, median was calculated for discharge values of the springs. Then, weight 2 was assigned to the springs with greater discharge than the median value, while othe r springs were assigned to a weight of 1. Finally, for calculating ROC values, values of the springs with weight 2 were considered twice in the analysis, while other springs were considered once. This procedure enhances the influence of the springs with higher discharges in the evaluation process. Results Support vector machine In the current study, four kernels of the SVM model were optimized by cross-validation and GPMs were plotted in ArcGIS 9.3. Based on the results, the best SVM with LN kernel had a cost value of 0.001. The results of PL kernel showed that gamma=0.5, cost= 0.1, and degree= 2 had the best performance. In the case of SVM-SIG, best performance was gained by gamma= 1, and c= 0.01. The results of SVM-RBF showed that gamma= 0.5, c= 10 had the best performance. The resultant GPMs produced using different kernels of the SVM are represented in Fig. 5 and Table 2. According to the results, low, moderate, high, and very high classes in GPM produced by SVM-LN occupy 15.88, 36.05, 33.75, and 14.32% of the study area, respectively. Low, moderate, high, and very high classes in SVM-PL cover 3.38, 22.12, 47.52, and 26.98% of the study area, respectively. In the case of SVM-SIG, 22.87, 32.98, 30.50, and 13.64% of the study area were designated to the low, moderate, high, and very high classes, respectively. The results of SVM-RBF showed that low, moderate, high, and very high classes cover 22.01, 45.85, 22.39, and 9.74% of the study area, respectively. Random forest (RF), and genetic algorithm optimized random forest (RFGA) As mentioned in the methods section, two methods were used to optimize RF model including caret and genetic algorithm. Final model by RF-caret had ntree= 1600, and mtry= 2, while final model by RFGA had ntree= 1744, and mtry= 2. The results showed that out of bag error for RFGA (0.316) was lower than its value for RF-caret (0.35%). Also, the results of the ROC analysis showed better performance of RFGA than RF-caret by area under the curve of ROC values of 86.5, and 85.6, respectively. Considering the better performance of the RFGA model, its results about the importance of effective factors and final GPM were represented and the results of RF-caret were ignored. Figure 4 represents the mean decrease accuracy, and mean decrease Gini obtained by RFGA. According to the mean decrease accuracy, altitude had the highest importance, followed by TWI, slope angle, and aspect, while the profile curvature, and plan curvature had lowest importance. On the other hand, results of the mean decrease Gini depicted that land use, and lithology were the least important factors in groundwater potential mapping. The GPM produced using RFGA is represented in Fig. 5. According to the results, low, moderate, high, and very high classes in GPM produced by RFGA occupy 27.2, 32.4, 25.5, and 14.8% of the study area, respectively. Validation of the GPMs The ROC was calculated for all GPMs with springs validation dataset. The results of AUC-ROC are represented in Fig. 6. AUC-ROC for GPMs produced by the implemented methods in the current study ranges from 76.9 to 85.5%. AUC-ROC values for RF and RFGA were estimated as 84.6, and 85.5%, respectively. AUC-ROC values were estimated for SVM- LN, SVM-PL, SVM-SIG, and SVM- RBF as 79.3, 77, 77.7, and 76.9%, respectively. Discussion In this section, the results are discussed by three parts including (i) the performance of the models, (ii) the importance of the effective factors, and (iii) the precision of the GPMs. The performance of the models: The results showed that RFGA represented better performance than RF-caret. One of the advantages of GA is the capability to solve any optimization problem based on chromosome approach; another important characteristic of GA is its capability to handle multiple solution search spaces and solve the problem in such an environment (Tabassum and Mathew 2014). These advantages may have caused RFGAs better performance in the current study. Also, it can be seen that both RFs (i.e. RF-caret and RFGA) had better performance than different kernels of SVM model. The results of different SVM kernels showed that SVM-LN had the best performance, followed by SVM-SIG, SVM-RBF, and SVM-PL; However, their performance was similar. Based on the results, it is evident that SVM could be used as an efficient machine learning model in groundwater potential mapping. One of the drawbacks of the SVM relates to the needed time for the analysis. In addition, several criteria should be tested in order to find the optimum values for the modeling process (Tehrany et al. 2015). However, the efficiency of the SVM could be increased by making ensemble models. In a research, Tehrany et al (2015) used an ensemble weights of evidence and SVM model in flood mapping. Their results proved the efficiency and strength of the ensemble method over the individual methods. There are several potential reasons for error in the datasets implemented for groundwat er modeling, including measurement errors, limitations in field data collection, sampling bias, etc. The mentioned errors could affect the overall accuracy of the SVM models (Moisen et al. 2006). The importance of effective factors in groundwater potential mapping The importance of effective factors was determined using RFGA as the best model in the current study. Based on the results, in total, altitude, TWI, slope angle, and slope aspect were the most effective factors on groundwater potential. On the other hand, plan curvature, profile curvature, land use, and lithology were the least effective factors on groundwater potential. A growing body of literature investigates the importance of different effective factors in groundwater potential mapping (Naghibi and Pourghasemi 2015; Rahmati et al. 2016). The results of Naghibi and Pourghasemi (2015) showed that altitude, distance from faults, SPI, and fault density had the highest importance in groundwater potential mapping. In another research, Rahmati et al (2016) depicted that altitude, drainage density, lithology, and land use were the most influence factors on groundwater potential. Comparing the results of the current study and the results of the two mentioned researches shows that the impo rtance of effective factors in groundwater potential mapping is dependent on the indicator, methods, and hydrological, geological, and climatic conditions of the target area. The precision of the GPMs: With this assumption that a better model is the one which determines the high and very high classes more precisely, a model with lower percent of high and very high classes area could be more helpful in water resources planning and management. A more precise GPM could help water resources managers to make better and more accurate decisions about areas for exploitation and even water conservation techniques. According to the results, SVM-RBF, and RFGA models had the lowest percent of the high and very high classes with 32.1, and 40.3% of the study area, respectively. Conclusion In general, the water crisis in the 21th century is much more related to management and planning than to a real crisis of scarcity and drought stress. Lack of knowledge of water resources and inappropriate water resources management plans and strategies have made water crisis worse in arid and semi- arid regions. Therefore, the first step in appropriate planning of water resources is to know and gain knowledge of these vital resources. Groundwater is one of the most important water resource supplies, especially in arid and semi- arid countries with extreme lack of water, growing population, and successive droughts. Considering the mentioned problems and issues, in the current study, we evaluated the performance of different kernels of SVM model and two strategies for optimization of RF (i.e. caret and GA). The results of the current study showed that RFGA had the best performance, followed by SVM-LN, SVM-SIG, SVM-RBF, and SVM-PL. The RFGA was successfully implemented in the current s tudy. Also, different kernels of the SVM were used for producing GPMs with acceptable performances. However, their result was not as well as RFs performance. Furthermore, it can be seen that altitude, TWI, slope angle, and slope aspect were the most effective factors in groundwater potential assessment. The methodology produced in the current study could be transferred and tested in other areas for producing GPMs. As a final conclusion, GPMs could significantly help water resources managers and planners for better understanding of water resources conditions, exploitation, and conservation plans.

A parts manufacturer approval

A parts manufacturer approval CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Parts Manufacturer Approval (PMA) is a combined design and production approval for modification and replacement parts. It allows qualified sources that are not the original type certificate holder to design and manufacture replacement parts for commercial aircraft. The FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) approves materials, processes, appliances and other parts by other means like a Technical Standards Order (TSO) or in conjunction with a type certificate. The concept is pretty straight-forward: TheFAAsays that as long as you dont infringe upon someone elses patent, you can make a part or system of parts that someone can install on their aircraft in lieu of the original item. The FAA, specifically the ACO (Aircraft Certification Office) of the FAA, is responsible for approving any part design related to commercial aircraft. An OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) is subject to the same regulations to qualify and validate parts as a PMA holder is. An OEM does not approve its own pa rts. Order8110.42prescribes the approval procedures for FAA personnel and guides applicants in the approval process. Of course, for safetys sake, the FAA wants detailed proof that the PMA part is as good or better than the one made by the original equipment manufacturer, but thats a hurdle that more than a thousand PMA manufacturers have jumped many, many times. The rewards for their efforts are the profits received from building what they feel are better products, less expensive products or both. Today, airlines on every continent have an increasing demand for the PMA parts. The use of high-quality PMA parts has given airlines the cost savings that are translated into operational economy. Airlines are now working directly with PMA suppliers to develop replacement parts as a hedge against what they view as the monopoly pricing power of OEMs. 1.2 Problem definition Being first to the market is not as important as giving the customers what they want. Although being the major player in the industry, OEMs such as Boeing and Airbus have to take into considerations of how the customer feels about the cost-cutting value that the PMA part offers. The OEM might have paved the road in the industry, but PMAs are taking advantage of the situations that arise from it. At a time of weak revenue growth, the global airline industry has continued to seek more innovative cost containment strategies. Maintenance, which ranks second behind fuel as the largest cost line item for airlines, has huge potential for cost savings. Much of these savings can be realised through the use of DER repairs i.e. repairs approved by FAA Designated Engineering Representatives and parts manufactured under PMA by reputable sources other than the original OEM. (Andrew Farrant,October 2010). The battle between the original parts and the aftermarket parts have been a heated one, not only in the aviation industry but also from other businesses as well. We can see almost in every automotive workshops that aftermarket products are being sold widely to cater for the demand of the customers. Original manufacturers wants their customer to buy and use their products, whereas aftermarket products manufacturers is offering a cheaper alternative that can work as good as the original part. The OEM says theres plenty wrong in using aftermarket products, because if the OEM didnt make it, theres no guarantee that it will perform as well as the original; a situation that could jeopardize lives and indirectly ruin the reputation of the aircraft builder. A simple situation could explain all this. If in the event of an aircrash, the general public only hears that a particular model aircraft crashed, not the fact that an aftermarket part may have caused it. In the other hand, the PMA manufacturer says theres nothing wrong with their parts, especially since the FAA has to certify them as being equal to or better than the OEMs product before they can be sold to anyone. This is to prove that only a certified part can be used on an aircraft, thus keeping the standard of airworthiness. Use of such parts does not in any way affect the airworthiness of the aircraft. Such parts are identical in design specifications and part number to that of original manufacturer. Such parts are not bogus parts. They meet the drawing and material specifications and are manufactured under approval. Often, PMA parts are cheaper than the OEM parts as PMA holder does not have to make any investment on research and development. The PMA parts are identified by OEMs part number with either a prefix or suffix to differentiate it from OEM part number and to have traceability. It is almost identical, but with a lower price tag. The way that the OEM addresses this proble m is to say that once PMA parts is being used with their aircraft, the warranty for that particular aircraft, if still valid, is not accepted anymore. That is a big blow for the PMA industry, having a minority say in the situation.But like everything else in a free market, the victor is chosen by the customers, and for now theyre split, with some swearing by PMA parts and others swearing at them. In this battle, both OEM and PMA have their own strength. The OEM is armed with guaranteed compatibility and the PMA steps forward with compatibility, as well as lower prices and better availability. It is hard to see which side is winning the parts battle. It all comes to which part and what kinds of customers are being examined. 1.3 Objective of research The objective of this research is to determine the acceptance of PMA usage within the aviation industry in Malaysia. There is always two sides on a coin. Some may say that PMA is really the way to go especially in this dire economic state that the aviation industry is facing, while others may opt for the guaranteed OEM parts. According to Jason Dickstein, president of the Modification and Parts Replacement Association (MARPA), the attitude toward PMA parts was very different in the 1990s than it is today. He says that as some larger companies recognized that PMA parts could be a viable threat to their business, people became more reluctant to accept them. Efforts to try to disadvantage PMA parts ensued in the Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Committee (ARAC). â€Å"I think that there has been some anti-PMA sentiment in the past,† says Dickstein. â€Å"People who didnt understand PMAs were averse to PMAs because they represented an unknown quality. Over the last decade or so, MARPA, the PMA parts manufacturers themselves, and even some of the government agencies have done a good job cooperatively of better educating the public, particularly the public within the industry, about what a PMA part is. In response to OEM concerns, the FAA put its Aviation Safety (AVS) Repair, Alteration, and Fabrication (RAF) Team to work. Its task was to â€Å"provide recommendations to close any gaps existing in both current and in-process regulations, policy, and guidance necessary to ensure an acceptable level of safety commensurate with the criticality of affected parts.† â€Å"What they concluded was that what the FAA has been doing is safe, that PMA parts are safe, and a lot of the OEM concerns are competitive, rather than safety-driven,† says Dickstein. 1.4 Research scope This research will be targeted mainly on the two biggest airline operators in Malaysia, which are Malaysia Airlines System and Air Asia. The scope of the study will only be concentrated in the maintenance and financial field. * Maintenance the practicallity of PMA parts to be the substitude for OEM parts (how they perform,do they fit easily,the availability of parts etc) * Financial the pros and cons in terms of monetary value, both in short and long term aspects (how much difference does PMA parts offers in terms of savings, to what extend does PMA parts affect the warranty of an aircraft etc) This research will only cover the perceptions and opinions of people who are involved with the aviation industry, particularly on PMA issues. The outcome from this research could possibly help both airlines in deciding whether to go for or against PMA parts. There are a few big names working together with the PMA manufacturers. Names such as British Airways, Delta Airlines, Pratt Whitney are now enjoying the benefits that the PMA parts offers, both to them and also to their customers. Airline operators in Malaysia must have their stand on the PMA issue in order to be on par with the big names. CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction PMA parts have been produced for 50 years, beginning with the demand for replacement parts for World War II-vintage aircraft. At that time, companies other than the original manufacturers were allowed to design and make spare parts for aircraft under a PMA to help a large number of military aircraft sold to civilian operators to fly again. However, even after 50 years of usage throughout the industry, arguments between the airlines, the OEMs and the PMAs are still highly debated. This is due to the questionable quality and safety concerns used by Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM) to challenge PMAs, whom they take as a big competitor in the market. 2.2 Certification According to the FAA, PMA means the design and production approval for modification and replacement parts. It allows a manufacturer other than the OEM to produce and sell these parts for installation on type certificated products. Without the PMA, aircraft parts would be designed and manufactured exclusively by the OEM, granting them a monopoly in the replacement parts market. The FAA requires that companies or individuals that produce parts for sale for installation into type certificated aircraft may only sell approved parts. These approved aircraft parts, other than hardware, are parts that are approved by TSO, PMA, a type certificate, or a production certificate. To receive a TSO or PMA approval for a part, the manufacturer of the part must demonstrate to the FAA that the part will operate just like the original part, as intended in an aircraft environment and will be manufactured according to the FAA standards. The FAA regulations states that it is the responsibility of the person installing the parts on an aircraft to ensure the parts meet the appropriate airworthiness standards. The Technical Standard Order (TSO) is one of the procedures that the FAA uses to establish standards for aircraft parts. TSOs have been established for many types of aircraft parts such as landing gear parts, engine parts and many avionics equipments. TSOs are divided into d ifferent categories and the testing required to cover a wide range of environmental conditions such as heat, temperature, altitude, vibration, etc must be established. If a TSO is available for a part, a manufacturer will test the part in an FAA-approved laboratory to meet the requirements as per the TSO. If the part successfully passes all the tests, then the manufacturer will be granted a letter from the FAA stating that the part is approved per the TSO. This TSO approval letter means the part can be used for installation in any aircraft via an STC (Supplemental Type Certificate) or TC (Type Certificate) as long as the operating environment of the part in the aircraft is within the TSO criteria. If there are no TSO categories established for the part that the manufacturer wants to produce and sell, the manufacturer can still get the approval from FAA by testing the part in the actual aircraft type where it is designed to be used. To achieve this, the part must be conformed to the design drawings by a FAA-designated inspector to ensure it meets the type design. Then it will be installed and tested in accordance with a FAA-approved test plan. Upon completion of the tests, submittal of the appropriate documentation, and verification of a FAA-approved manufacturing system for the part, the FAA will issue a letter identifying the part as eligible for installation under PMA for the specific aircraft type in which it was tested. The PMA part may then be installed in the specific aircraft via STC or TC. If the part manufacturer wants to use the part in another aircraft type, additional documentation and testing may be required. In any case, a PMA part can only be installed in an air craft types where it has specifically been approved. Airliner who manufacture parts for their own use, do not require a PMA for the manufactured parts since they are not being sold to another party. The parts, however, still must be approved and manufactured according to the FAA standards and installed using a STC or other FAA-approved installation procedure. The regulations states that a PMA part must be equal to or better than the OEM equivalent. John Wicht, a project manager at Wisconsin-based Rapco, Inc pointed out that the FAA Aircraft Certifications Office wont accept on ‘equal to parts, according to his involvement in many PMAs. He also said that â€Å"If you cant definitively demonstrate that your part will exceed the performance of the OEM part, theyre just not interested in talking to you. 2.3 Safety issues The FAA or EASA have no statistical evidence for safety concerns with PMA parts. It is as if they are turning a blind eye on the matter, which is definitely not a good news for the OEM. For them, anything will do as long as all the required procedures are being followed accordingly. To achieve certification, PMA manufacturers must prove to the FAA that a part that they manufacture is the same in all respects to a design in a type-certificated product or, through test an computation, that the part is the same as, or better than, the one it seeks to replace. â€Å"You have to prove that the quality assurance system is adequate before you get production approval, just like the OEM products are proven,† says Jason Dickstein, president of the Modification and Replacement Parts Association (MARPA). As people begin to see what the regulatory structure surrounding PMA parts before it is being approved, those people begin to accept PMA parts. Many air carriers are now starting up programs to identify and purchase PMA parts because they believe that the PMA parts are safe and that, because they represent competition, PMA parts would bring prices down. British Airways had been on the opposite of the PMA parts until representatives from Heico International Inc., a maker of hydraulic cylinders, sat down with them to explain the benefits of PMA parts. After the presentation, British Airways had turned around 180 degrees and begin purchasing PMA parts. Air carriers are now being more acceptance towards PMA at the purchasing and quality assurance levels because they have conducted investigations prior to the actual usage of it. Air carriers had to investigate the usage of PMA to figure out whether or not they represent a good economic value. What the carriers found out was that not only were they a good economic value, but theyre also safe. A PMA may be obtained for replacement parts for TSO articles that are approved as part of a product type design, provided that installation eligibility to that product can be shown. Approval of a part that would result in a major design change to the TSO article cannot be done under a PMA and would require a new TSO authorization. Even critical components can be ‘PMAed, given that it is in compliance with the specific FAA guidance. When there is a PMA on a critical part, chances are that the critical part has gone through a whole lot of FAA scrutiny that the OEM part didnt go through. This means that a PMA part is being more thoroughly checked. The FAA has to witness all the tests being carried out to the most critical components. These will never be delegated to a DER (designated engineering representatives). The FAA has to perform its own analysis of all the data and make the individual regulatory compliance findings themselves. The draft for FAA Order 8120.2F also states that once a PMA part has passed through a PMA holders quality system, the holder must establish a procedure to report any failure, malfunction, or defect of the part to the FAA. 2.4 Cost savings By using the PMA parts, airlines all over the world can also save a lot of money. The economic imperative for airlines to minimize maintenance costs means the savings offered by PMA parts, when compared to OEM catalogue prices are a big advantage. DER repairs and PMA parts programmes that specifically focus on gas path components can result in savings of more than US$500,000 per shop visit, or over 50 percent of the typical OEM catalogue pricing. These alternative parts and repair programmes not only represent a great opportunity for savings, I believe they represent the only form of competition available in this specialised market. [ Andrew Farrant, 2010 ] As mentioned earlier, British Airwaysis clearly showing a very high interest on using PMA parts. They are now looking to make massive savings through the extensive use of PMA parts instead of sourcing them from the OEM. Speaking at The Great PMA Debate event at the Royal Aeronautical Society in London, Ameet Bhalla, British Airways technical manager, airframe systems, explained that the strategy follows on from a deal signed with Heico, the worlds largest independent designer, manufacturer and distributor of FAA and EASA approved replacement parts for jet engines and aircraft components. This will see that Heico will be managing BAs alternative parts programme while at the same time helping the airline maximise savings through using alternative aircraft parts. Through this deal with Heico, we will actively seek PMA opportunities going forward. We will no longer be the cash machine for OEMs, said Bhalla. Contrary to popular belief, PMA parts have been used for many years within BA. There has been an approval process since 1997 and hundreds of PMA parts are now in use. In 2006 alone, 28 new PMA parts were approved, he added. These are not bogus parts but approved by the very same regulatory authorities that approve OEM aircraft parts. BA reviews all applicable PMA parts and approves each one on a case-by-case basis. Once installed, the parts are monitored for any defect trends and we note failure modes of PMA parts to check that they are similar, if not the same, as their OEM equivalent, he says. Bhalla also said that BA are now looking on to exploring the potential of 95% of Heicos inventory that are non-critical items. There has been no overall financial saving target set but we have said that we will openly entertain the PMA concept and w ould consider putting non-critical PMA parts on any of our aircraft, he says. James Bennett, Heico European sales director, told Flight International: Historically BA, while not anti-PMA, could not be said to be advocates either. They are well known as being extremely conservative as an airline but the move byLufthansa, which isa stakeholder in Heico, was seen in the industry as an extremely successful move to keep the OEMs in check. BA must certainly be looking in the region of saving between 30-40% off OEM list prices and will be focusing on high-cost items. Heico will head that PMA management process and review together with BA where further PMA applications can be used. We will be the fulcrum for BA to explore PMA. 2.5 Availability PMA manufacturers are also proud of their inventories, having the ability to supply immediate availability on a variety of parts that the OEMs have trouble keeping in stock. Although customers most frequent complaints are with engine OEMs, shortages can be found with everything from fasteners to landing gear struts. During the summer of 2003, owners of MDHIs helicopters noticed a dramatic decline in the availability of OEM parts. It wasnt long afterwards that everyone realized the company was in the grips of severe cash flow problems, resulting in angry suppliers refusing to deliver new components to the factory floor until outstanding debts were paid. As a result, sales of MDHIs light single-engine MD500s and twin-engine Explorers plummeted and there are rumours that MDHI was months away from bankruptcy. Meanwhile, MDHI aircraft around the world were on the ground with timed-out parts and some very angry operators. Aerometals, a California-based supplier of PMA parts, which had been selling PMA parts for MDHI (then Hughes Helicopters) since 1983, was perfectly positioned to take advantage of the problem with the OEM and sell tons of products to MDHIs anxious customers. And even though the health of MDHI has greatly improved since its acquisition by Patriarch Partners investment group in 2005, customers still call on Aerometals for a wide variety of components. Aerometals tend to have 95 percent of their product line available for same-day shipment, whereas the OEM competitor has many items back ordered for six months or more. Aerometals has experienced a huge rise in sales simply because they have the items in stock and the OEM doesnt. Even some of the healthy helicopter manufacturers have had trouble filling orders. Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, companies likeAgustaWestland, Bell andEurocopterhave seen orders for new aircraft come in at a record pace. The increase in orders at the helicopter manufacturers still have their assembly lines running at maximum capacity. A new Bell orEurocopterproduct will have to wait around two to three years before it can be delivered. The ripple effect of those sales has overwhelmed the engine manufacturers and other OEM subcontractors in the chain as well, leaving the door open for PMA manufacturers to step in with parts ready for immediate shipment to aircraft already in-service. 2.6 Wider acceptance Acceptance comes with maturity. And where there is acceptance, market potential could grow from it. This statement briefly concludes the PMA parts in aviation world today. Every year, more businesses discover the advantage of buying PMA parts. As a result, the aerospace industry has witnessed a continuous rise in the usage of PMA parts on a global scale. But their acceptance by the airlines has escalated only recently. PMA parts acceptance among airlines was pretty low just five years ago, says Hal Chrisman, a principal at the Ann Arbor, Mich.-based management consulting firm, AeroStrategy. North American airlines have long used PMA parts, but their interest in their cost-cutting value has increased noticeably since 9/11 and the resulting economic downturn. PMA parts provide the irresistible cost advantage of 30 percent to 50 percent, says Kirti Timmanagoudar, research analysis at the consulting analysis company, Frost Sullivan, San Jose, California. Equally important to industry p otential is the emerging interest coming from Europe and Asia. Europes growing use of PMA parts is being supported by an improved industry structure and by major third-party MRO providers that are encouraging airlines to switch to PMA parts, according to a Frost Sullivan survey of European maintenance trends. The increased use of PMA parts in Europe is in tandem with the continents growing number of low-cost carriers (nearly 50 of the more than 80 carriers, according to Frost Sullivan) and the trend to outsource maintenance, which has brought the rapid increase in numbers of third-party MROs. Ironically, despite this growing demand for PMA parts (made in the United States and approved for acceptance in other countries through bilateral agreements), Europe has virtually no parts manufacturers other than the OEMs. This escalating interest in PMA parts led to a two-day meeting of airline maintenance officials in Seattle in late January 2006, the purpose of which was to better understand PMA parts and theFAAparts approval process for the airlines. They want to, first, find out how each of the attending airlines handle PMA parts and, second, find ways to expedite, and perhaps standardize, the use of PMA parts. Before, the airlines apparently didnt talk much to each other [about PMA parts processing], according to Gloria Nations, president of the Modification and Replacement Parts Association (MARPA) and attendee of the Seattle meeting. Spearheaded by Alaska Airlines, the meeting included presentations by invited association, government and industry officials. Airlines like United, Delta, Air Canada, Japan Airlines and, most recently, British Airways have struck strategic partnership deals with Heico, reputedly the worlds largest independent designer, manufacturer and distributor of FAA- and EASA- approved alternative parts for aircraft and jet engines. American Airlines has a joint venture with the company to manage its alternative parts, while Lufthansa Technik actively encourages the development and production of PMA parts through its 20 percent stake in Heico. Carl Pedersen, president and CEO of Cimber Air Support, a passionate advocate of PMA, told delegates that PMA will become more relevant than ever as operators are forced to cut cost without jeopardizing safety. Yet, whenever the use of PMA parts is put up for discussion, said Pedersen, the individual who tables the issue is often looked upon as the bad guy of the movie which, to my mind, indicates that the subject of PMA is not fully understood.† EASA will only grant approval to a PMA part today if its not a critical component, it has been manufactured under license or if any minor changes or more major supplemental type certifications meet specific EASA approval. But now, Pedersen said, EASA has plans in place for a European PMA equivalent to the FAA under the banner of an EPA part, for which a tender for review has been commissioned but not yet finalized. It could be argued that design and manufacturing procedures are already in place under EASAs Part 21, said Pedersen, but creating a recognized European equivalent will put European operators and MROs on an even footing with their U.S. counterparts, eliminating the unfair trade limitations we have today†. To this end, he said the issue of PMA might yet be included in the imminent EU/U.S. Bilateral Air Safety Agreement which, reportedly, currently is embroiled in the politics of fees and charges. Yves Morier, EASAs head of product safety, confirmed EASA is discussing with its FAA counterparts how best to cooperate on PMA rulemaking. Currently, there is no statistical evidence for safety concerns with PMA, said Morier. But the overall experience may not be sufficient to draw definitive conclusions. Chris Carter, who manages the FAAs Certification Procedures Branch, had a definite view. PMA is here to stay, he said. Its deeply embedded in our system, and theres an ever-growing demand, especially now that Pratt Whitney is entering the market, he said. Moreover, in terms of PMA product quality, he confirmed the FAA has no better than or safer than criteria. The only bar required is the absolute safeguard of industrial regulation. Any latent risk in PMA has more to do with the financial standing of the PMA manufacturer than the PMA part itself, and, in his view, some PMA manufacturers are attaining the scale and stability of many OEMs. Looking ahead, he told the delegates that the FAA will continually improve its processes and work very closely with MARPA (Modification and Replacement Parts Association) on upcoming policy and new changes. Were also expanding delegation as the industry matures its capabilities and responsibilities, he said. Indeed, the U.S. has signed its first PMA bilateral agreement with Australia, which now has its own PMA approval processes, he said. The greatest supporting fact that PMA is now being accepted is the defence from the FAA on the side of PMA. In an attempt to counter anti-PMA safety concerns, the FAA released Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB) NE-08-40 on Aug. 8, 2008. There have been a few wording in some OEM manuals that drove the FAA to issue the bulletin as a closing statement in an ongoing argument about the validity of PMA parts. According to Jason Dickstein, president of the Modification and Parts Replacement Association (MARPA), the SAIB was driven by the FAAs dismay at the fact that some OEMs were using safety documents for competitive purposes. A MARPA release from Aug. 10, 2008, states that some manufacturers have made commercial statements designed to demoralize the publics confidence in PMA parts. OEM decisions cannot override the word of the FAA. â€Å"If the FAA approved a PMA part to be used, the OEM is in no position to tell you that the FAAs approval is invalid,† says Dickstei n. MARPA says that the FAA expects the industry to treat its approval of PMA parts with the respect to the FAA decision. â€Å"We are an extremely risk-averse industry,† says Dickstein. â€Å"Many industries will go with a new product as long as they dont see anything wrong with it. Our industry wont go with a product unless we see everything is right with it.† 2.7 Different views As a customer, the airline industry comprises of many different subcategories. Each of them have a different approach on the PMA issue and whether they best fit into their operation or not. 2.7.1 The Airlines It is in a very competitive business environment that airlines are operating, with profit margins so small, every dollar has to be treated as if it was worth a million. That is why all airlines are very interested at the low cost that PMA parts do offer. Most of the engine parts that must be replaced on a regular basis, needs to be changed periodically and the cost of sustaining such activity are directly proportional to the usage of the engine. This means that the more the engine is being used, the more maintenance that it has to go through and the more money needs to come out from the pocket of the airline. Maximising the usage of the airlines resources, in this case the aircraft itself, is very crucial in keeping the airline in business. Obtaining the less expensive part such as the PMA parts to cater to the demand of the ever increasing cost in maintenance is a very good move. The airlines are trying to control the amount of money that comes out from their pocket in order to oper ate efficiently. They cannot control the price of fuel, so the next best thing that they can control is the price of maintenance activity. But what scares them is the OEMs asking the billion dollar question: Are you willing to risk lives, law suits and ruining your good name because you decided to buy cheap parts? In response to not knowing which part to be in, whether going to the people who say PMA parts are safe and inexpensive or the OEMs who say PMA parts are unsafe because theyre inexpensive, some airlines conducted evaluations. Samples of an OEM part and its PMA equivalent are run in controlled tests side by side to evaluate their performance. Many airlines that conduct their own tests end up selecting certain PMA parts, while keeping some OEM components. The buzz around the airl

Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare as a Tragedy Essay -- Papers

Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare as a Tragedy "Romeo and Juliet" is considered by most people to be Shakespeare's most tragic work. Two young people die for their love for each other - what can be more purer, romantic and tragic than that. But is it as simple as that? What does actually make the play so tragic? Before we can discuss the tragic aspects of Romeo and Juliet, we must first understand the meaning of the term 'tragedy'. The Chambers Dictionary defines tragedy as" a type of drama dealing with tragic events and often involving the fall of an honourable, worthy and important protagonist, often with elevated action and language; a play of this type; the art of such drama; any piece of literature, music, etc ending with disaster for the protagonist; a disaster, any sad story or turn of events; any event involving killing". Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy by the definition in the dictionary. Both lead roles, Romeo and Juliet, die in the play, therefore making it tragic. However there are many more factors which are typical of Shakespeare' tragedies which occur, and some factors which make the play less tragic. Juliet is a more tragic figure because she has no real control over her life at all. The arrival of Romeo and their subsequent love affair gives her an alternative to a life controlled by her father and his choice of husband for her - she could run away and live a romantic life with Romeo. At the end both Romeo and Paris are dead so even if she survived there would be no future for Juliet. Main characters in Shakespeare's plays are often quite innocent and are swept along by other events happening at the time, for e... ...nciliation with her father. Her union with Romeo has lost Juliet her family whatever the outcome. 'Romeo and Juliet' was written as a tragedy, and is still seen as such over four hundred years later. A modern day audience may react differently to some aspects of the play - the treatment of women and the age of Juliet, for example. In our society, Juliet would still be considered a child and Romeo would be in as much trouble for his marriage to underage Juliet as he would be for the murder of Tybalt. Yet, despite that, our sympathies are with the young couple who were not responsible for the feud between their parents but who had to suffer the consequences. The tragedy is inevitable from the beginning. From the moment Romeo first sees Juliet and they share their first kiss they hurtle headlong towards their death.

Visual Arts and the Internet Essay -- Computers Media Technology Essay

Visual Arts and the Internet I have selected the area of visual arts to give examples of websites that I have found exploring the impact of new technologies. Artist’s influence from technology has allowed them the freedom to expand their mediums in which they work with, exhibit their work world wide, collaborate with other artists and discover new concepts with scientists. Artists’ are always looking for something new and different, the best possible way to communicate their ideas. Cynthia Beth Rubin is an artist who is interested in how in all of us there are embedded cultural traditions merging and colliding. She feels she has benefited from new technology, â€Å"New technology has expanded my visual vocabulary, and all of my work, both video and still imagery, is now produced through the computer†¦echoing the ambiguity of memory, the computer is the instrument for allowing some images to sing, some to come forward as clear images, others to fall back into barely representational dreams of textures and colours.† (http://www.cbrubin.net/statement.html) Artists are experimenting with using arising technology in an original way. Working with new media and collaborating with other artists. David Galbraith and Teresa Seemann â€Å"†¦have developed an interplay between their work in the visual arts, experimental music, and performance. Using the model of collaborations, links, and connections found in electronic and experimental music, the exhibition examines how increased accessibility to advanced technology is directly influencing the content and context of contemporary art and culture†¦ increased access to advanced technology has allowed artists to experience a "do-it-yourself" freedom and to embrace cultural production that is not... ...ve/issuethmbs/newsletters/MayJune97/article2.html Exhibition History, retrieved September 13th, 2004, from http://www.newmuseum.org/more_exh_waveform.php Extra Ear –  ¼ Scale, the Tissue Culture & Art in Collaboration with Stelarc, retrieved September 13th, 2004, from http://www.tca.uwa.edu.au/extra/extra_ear.html Landscape, Earth, Body, Being, Space and Time in the Immersive Virtual Environments Osmose and Ephà ©mà ¨re, Women, Art, and Technology, Malloy, J. ed. London, England: The MIT Press (2003), pp. 322-337, illus, retrieved September 14th, 2004, from http://www.immersence.com/ Ten Dreams of Technology, Dietz, S. published in Leonardo, Vol. 35 Number 5 (2002) pp. 509-513, retrieved September 14th, 2004, from http://www.immersence.com/index.html  ¼ Scale ear, retrieved September 13th, 2004, from http://www.sterlarc.va.com.au/quarterear/index.html

Existentialistic Ideas in Anita Desai’s Novels

EXISTENTIALIST FOCUS ON PROTAGONIST SITA – ANITA DESAI'S -WHERE SHALL WE GO THIS SUMMER ? The protagonist herself has an existential entity. Desai, has presented an intense identity crisis of the central character Sita, a sensitive woman in her late forties. Existentialism’ is a difficult term to define and an odd movement as many feel, but it not totally impossible to define. ‘Existentialists’, tend to take freedom of the will, the human power to do or not do, as absolutely obvious. Only now and then, there are arguments for free will. Sita was one such character depiction of Anita Desai.However, in general the existentialists recognize that human knowledge is limited and fallible. The protagonist expects miracles to happen on her island. One can be deeply committed to truth and investigation and simply fail to find adequate truth, or get it wrong. The world in which we live is full of spiritual stress and strain. Sita terribly wants to escape from her day to day life and its mundane extensions. Modern man has become materialistic, so self centered and so ego- centric that,he cannot afford to help without suffering the inner problem – a conviction of segregation and purposelessness prevails in his day to day life.Sita is tired of the monotony of the life in Bombay. She wants to run away, from the daily duties that torture her. She slowly feels, like going far away and leaving the place would help her get rid of her mental turmoil. So, ultimately Sita’s option was her father’s magical island ‘Manori’. The existential problem is so critical and enveloping that it threatens every sphere of her life. We see Sita, the landlord of the mansion in the magical island Manori, arriving there after a long gap of twenty years. The air seems to be pathetic, as nothing seems to be perfect when she arrives, with her two children, in search of peace and harmony.Desai employs the sea, as a contrivance of progress that is focused in this novel. Sita, the central character, seems to be bored with life in Mumbai and expects to have a drastic change in life at ‘Manori’. The people in the island await ferventlyto see the daughter of their beloved saint who was phenomenal in human relation and a living legend for all of them, but Sita returns as a chaotic mother, without her husband to accompany and with no special traits ofher great father. The sea plays a major role in the lives of both Raman and Sita, because this is the place where their life had begun.Desai makes use of the term a ‘zombie’ – an expression to portray the frustration with the rich life in the city. Sita is seen to suffer, from culpability this transforms her intact personality. Moses finds her not, the least like her father. The metropolis had taught her to smoke – a habit that even men in the island feel unrespectable. Sita had intentions of keeping the baby unborn, but not to abort it. Ever y action she performed at home in Mumbai appeared as sheer madness. The boys acting the scene, Menaka and her magazine, the ayah’s gossip all seemed to terrorize Sita.The insecurity of the city life made Sita feel, that she had to return to her safe magical island Manori, which was paradise to her. The menial matters of food, sex and money were simple matters to the town folk who were engrossed in such mind-numbing venture. She had lived in a joint family set up and everyone was all the time talking about trivialities like food or at least the preparation of it. Thus Desai The arena she has given the readers to exploit is quite wide. The readers wonder at the author’s skillful portrayal of relationships.

Hercules And The Nemean Lion History Essay

Olympia, an active sanctuary during the Geometric period, has besides yielded a figure of failed castings from the nearby workshops where the dedications were produced. The figurines were cast solid by the lost-wax procedure: wax was cut, rolled, pinched, and tooled ; the wax organic structure parts were stuck together ; the ensuing theoretical account was invested with a clay mold ; the mold was baked to fire out the wax ; and bronze was poured into the mold to replace the wax. The base was normally cast along with the statuette. During the seventh century BCE, generic standing work forces became more specific representations of ram- or calf-bearers, of young persons, and of striding assailing Gods, types which continued to be made through the Archaic period. Although bronze figurines were produced long before large-scale bronzes were cast, sphyrelaton was an early technique used to do some larger images. Harmonizing to the 2nd-century ad traveler Pausanias ( 3. 17. 6 ) , the procedure involved hammering sheets of metal into the form of a figure and concentrating them together over a solid nucleus. Merely a few such images survive-the best known are a male ( height 0.8 m/2 foot 5 in ) and a brace of much smaller females ( height 0.4 m/1 foot 4 in ) from a little sanctuary at Dreros in Crete ( Crete, Heraklion Mus. ) . Stiffly frontal cylindrical standing figures, they are normally dated to the late eighth century or the early seventh century BCE. The Orientalizing period of the seventh century BCE was a period during which the Greeks imported metal objects, fabrics, tusks, and thoughts from Phoenicia, Syria, Phrygia, and Urartu. The manners and topics of their ain plants were affected, and six or more alien gryphons ‘ caputs with inlaid eyes are added to the shoulders of bronze caldrons that served as dedications, some of the caldrons standing more than 3 m ( 10 foot ) tall. The Greeks besides traded with Egypt, where they saw large-scale statuary in rock and in bronze. Egypt had a long-established sculptural tradition of blocklike, frontal figures with carefully formulated proportions. By the center of the seventh century, the Greeks had brought place these ‘new ‘ thoughts, every bit good as the cognition of large-scale bronze-casting and stonecarving methods. The sculptures that were produced in 7th-century Greece are derived from the Egyptian tradition, both stylistically and technically, but they are adapted to suit the demands of Greek spiritual dedications. The manner associated with the seventh century is called ‘Daedalic ‘ , after the legendary artist/craftsman Daedalus. A typical illustration is the standing marble Persephone ( immature adult female ) dedicated by Nicander on the island of Delos ( Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) . Stiffly frontlet, she has orderly triangular subdivisions of hair arranged symmetrically on either side of a triangular face, wide shoulders, a triangular trunk, a tight but however unrevealing belted adventitia, hands attached to the sides, and pess emerging from beneath an upward-curving hem. From the side, the figure ‘s defects become clear: she is unnaturalistically vertical, and thin and planklike in contour. Two likewise formulaic adult females were carved in the ulterior seventh century BCE as alleviation on the bottom of a limestone lintel-block at Prinias in Crete, and two 3-dimensional adult females are seated atop either terminal of the same header ( Crete, Heraklion Mus. ; tallness o f sitting adult females c.0.82 m/2 foot 8 in ) . The limestone temple of Artemis on Corfu ( c. 590 – 580 BCE ) , constructed at the beginning of the Archaic period in Greece, is the earliest Grecian temple known to hold been built wholly of rock with rock pedimental sculptures ( Corfu Mus. ) . The job of how to suit figures into the triangular infinite was addressed by changing the graduated table: bantam figures of dead giants lie with their caputs in the corners of the West pediment ; so come two larger braces dwelling of Gods assailing giants ; so two giant spotted jaguars, couchant ; and, in the Centre, a monstrous Medusa ( height 2.85 m/9 foot 9 in ) overlaps the extremum of the pediment, her immense face and pouching torso frontlet, her weaponries and legs in profile. Her vigorous place, with one articulatio genus down and one up, coupled with the wings on her mortise joints, is exemplifying of flight ; her immense eyes and drooping lingua are apotropaic. The Gorgon is flanked by her bantam kids Chrysaor and Pegasus, b orn at the minute of her decease ; used here, like the giants in the corners of the pediments, to arouse a narrative. Archaic bronze figurines have been found in peculiarly big Numberss in Olympia, Athens, Delphi, Dodona, and Samos. Traditionally, they have been grouped harmonizing to the theory that there were assorted regional Centres of production, in Attica, Aegina, Corinth, Sicyon, Argos, Sparta, Arcadia, Magna Graecia, and east Greece. These designations are by and large based upon manner, non upon find-spots. Some of the most sophisticated Archaic bronze figurines have been found at the Heraion ( sanctuary of Hera ) on Samos, and they were likely made in the immediate locality of that site. These bronzes support the grounds of the ancient literary testimonia which ascribe legendary accomplishments and accomplishments in projecting techniques to the Samian bronzeworkers Rhoicus and Theodorus ( see Pausanias 8. 14. 8 ; 9. 41. 1 ; 10. 38. 6 ) . The Samians were among the most active of the Grecian bargainers with Egypt. A three-times-life-size marble kouros from the Heraion, dating to the early Archaic period, c.580/70 BCE, attests to the impact of that contact ( Samos, Arch. Mus. ) . Hundreds of images of korai and kouroi ( immature work forces ) , some in bronze but most of them painted rock, were erected to function as votive offerings or as sedate markers. The colossal Sounion Kouros ( Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) is a good illustration of the early Archaic manner. Nude, blocklike, and frontal, he stands over 3 m ( 10ft ) in tallness, one leg extended in front of the other, but both pess rest level on the land, and neither hips nor shoulders are affected by his stance. His custodies are clenched against his thighs, though on later kouroi the weaponries may be extended forwards from the cubituss. Anatomical inside informations are aggressively articulated, but they are governed by the rule of surface design. A big three-dimensional caput is decorated with luxuriant additive item, including rows of conventionalized coils, volute-like ears, and immense bulging eyes. The shoulder blades, epigastric arch, and patellas serve as cosmetic surface design on an otherwise m onolithic figure which retains the features of the quadrilateral block of marble from which the image was carved. The 6th-century Persephone wears a long frock, long hair, and ever has her pess together, but as the Archaic period progresses, her garments, symmetrically placed long locks of hair, and jewelry become more luxuriant. There is much grounds of aureate and brilliantly painted cosmetic inside informations. By the last one-fourth of the sixth century, the Doric peplus, a heavy woolen, swimmingly hanging belted garment, was replaced by the lightweight frilly Ionian chiton, with its greater possibilities for the add-on of cascading hems, of decoration, and of luxuriant surface forms. Throughout the century, the ‘Archaic smiling ‘ , the oral cavity with overturned corners, finely creased, is the changeless expression used on all statues, male and female alike. The Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, closely dated to between 530 and 520 BCE was originally instead like a brilliantly painted and flamboyant jewel-box ( Delphi Mus. ) . The island-dwellers ‘ expensive, carefully sited, and to a great extent sculpted dedication, made in the Ionic manner, had two caryatids ( female back uping figures ) , painted and embellished with bronze, alternatively of columns on the fa & A ; ccedil ; ade, and alleviation sculptures in both pediment and friezes. In the pediment, Hercules tries to wrest the Delphic tripod from Apollo ; in the frieze, complex engagement figures with their names inscribed represent scenes from the Trojan War, seated Gods, and a conflict between Gods and giants. The carven metopes on the Athenian Treasury, besides at Delphi ( c. 490 – 480 BCE ; Delphi Mus. ) , focal point on the labor of Theseus and of Hercules, and on the conflict between Greeks and Amazons. The trophies erected outside the simple Doric exchequer completed the memorial to triumph over the Iranis at the conflict of Marathon. Repeat is no more unusual in Grecian sculpture than it is in Grecian vase picture. An early 6th-century Tanagran grave stele for Dermys and Cittylus ( Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ; tallness of young persons 1.47 m/4ft 10 in ) , made of limestone carved in high alleviation, shows two standing males in airss that are mirror images of one another. Two monolithic kouroi dedicated at Delphi c. 580 BCE, traditionally but likely falsely identified as Cleobis and Biton of Argos, are practically indistinguishable ( Delphi Mus. ; tallness of each 1.97 m/6 foot 6 in ) . Three Samian korai lined up on a statue-base as portion of a household dedication are basically indistinguishable in airs and in visual aspect. Lost-wax casting is a generative procedure, and the Greeks used it to do large-scale bronzes from the Archaic period onwards. This method was good suited to sculpture that was stylistically insistent, limited to standing, striding, or seated figures that served entirely spiritual maps. In other words, although bronze has a far greater tensile strength than does lapidate, its flexibleness was non exploited, for large-scale bronze statues of the sixth century did non divert from the rigorous expressions dictated by Archaic stylistic convention. Therefore two little bronze equestrians from Samos were cast from the same original theoretical account ( Samos, Arch. Mus. ) , as were two bronze kouroi ( Samos, Arch. Mus. ; and Berlin, Altes Mus. ) , the lone existent difference between the latter being that the left leg of one of them was inscribed by the dedicator, Smicrus. To project a bronze statue, the Greeks took piece-moulds from a basic theoretical account, and lined them with wax to do a thin-walled wax working theoretical account, which was usually produced in subdivisions and so pieced together. After seting the wax limbs and modeling and carving the surface inside informations, the artist/technician dismantled the working theoretical account. The piece-moulds could be reused to organize extra wax working theoretical accounts when more than one bronze was to be cast from the same basic theoretical account. The single subdivisions of the statue were invested individually in clay molds, and baked-to dry the clay and melt out the wax. Following, liquefied bronze was carried from the nearby furnace, poured into funnels, and therefore channelled into the molds to project the statue subdivisions. These could be joined automatically or metallurgically. For case, the Delphi Charioteer ‘s caput, weaponries, and trunks were socketed in topographic point, whereas his lower legs and pess appear to hold been hard-soldered to a home base hidden by the hem of the columnar skirt ( 478 or 474 BCE ; Delphi Mus. ; height 1.8 m/6 ft ) Completing touches included inset Ag dentition, a Ag meander in the filet adhering his caput, and lifelike stone eyes encased in Cu ciliums. Workshops for the production of statues and of figurines surely existed near many of the sanctuaries in which the images were dedicated, though little bronzes could besides hold been carried into a sanctuary from an wholly different venue. The usage of duplicative procedures further complicates the inquiry of regional manners, since this type of production meant that moulds taken from one basic theoretical account could hold been transported elsewhere for making waxes and so projecting them in bronze. Harmonizing to ancient literary beginnings, the tradition of raising statues of masters in athletic competitions began in the 3rd one-fourth of the sixth century. Pausanias makes it clear that such statues were non votive offerings, but that they were ‘given to the masters in the games ‘ ( 5. 21. 1 ) . The earliest such statues were made of wood, but bronze shortly came to be preferred, no uncertainty because of the freedom of motion this lightweight medium afforded. A new drift towards naturalism in sculpture had begun good before the terminal of the sixth century. The standing frontal male statue is reduced to life size, becomes somewhat asymmetrical, and is more realistic. The early 5th-century marble Kritios Boy ( Athens, Acropolis Mus. ; present height 1.17 m/3 foot 10 in ) is a all right illustration of this tendency towards naturalism. His caput turns a small to his right, his hips and shoulders displacement because he is really standing on one leg and loosen uping the other 1. His spinal column curves, his flesh appears soft and vernal, the Archaic smiling is gone, and the eyes were one time inlaid to impart pragmatism to the male child ‘s regard. In bronze excessively, the semblance of pragmatism was increased by inlaid eyes with Cu ciliums, Cu lips and mammillas, Ag dentitions, and silver fingernails. There is besides grounds that the surfaces of some bronzes made during the Classical period were painted or patinated. Our few preserved big bronze statues make a dramatic contrast to the many extant figurines, whose complex motions and pronounced tortuosity make them strongly 3-dimensional. Differences between the types represented in figurines and in large-scale bronzes are likely due more to independent stylistic traditions than to differences in methods of production. The early Classical bronze Artemision God ( Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) is a convincingly realistic exclusion to this regulation. He takes a large measure and draws back his arm to hurtle a arm, writhing somewhat at the waist, left arm forward to equilibrate himself. And yet his basically planar silhouette is non far removed from the stiffly striding aggressor of the Archaic period, with a frontal trunk and weaponries and legs in profile. Myron ‘s celebrated early Classical bronze discus-thrower does non last, but the literary beginnings give a clear sense of a immature adult male ‘who bends down†¦ turning toward the manus that holds the discus, and somewhat flexing the other articulatio genus, as if to unbend up with the throw ‘ ( Lucian, Philopseudes 18 ) . In add-on, there are a figure of ancient reproductions of the statue, including two erected by the Roman Emperor Hadrian at his state Villa in Tivoli ( Vatican Mus. ; London, BM ) . Although jocks might be represented engaged in athletics, the more common 5th-century type was that of standing bronze jocks, heroes, or generals developed from the Archaic kouros. Statuettes likely reflect large-scale images of the same types. The accent that bookmans have placed upon regional Centres of production during the Archaic period is replaced by a inclination to tie in Classical statues with the names of peculiar creative persons who are known from the ancient literary testimonia. The over-life-size Riace Bronzes, for case, have been given at least eight attributions-to Onatas, Myron, Phidias, or the ‘school ‘ of Phidias, Polyclitus, or a ‘follower ‘ of Polyclitus, Attica, or south Italy. Whoever made them, the statues are rare endurances of the Classical manner, for most ancient bronzes were finally melted down so that the metal could be reused, frequently for arms and ammo. The Riace Bronzes, their caputs turned, musculuss flexed, and pess bearing unequal weight, represent the realistic yet perfected Classical manner ( Reggio Calabria, Mus. Nazionale ) . A individual basic theoretical account was seemingly used for both of these bare statues ( height 1.97 and 1.98 m/6 foot 6 in ) , and their overall similarities are unmistakable, but each version was individualized in the wax before being dramatis personae, ensuing in important differences, peculiarly in the faces, face funguss, and hair. They were meant to be seen as persons, though both images have idealized organic structures, and both were one time helmeted and equipped with shield and lance. In the first century ad, Pliny estimated that a major metropolis or sanctuary might incorporate about 3,000 statues. On the strength of lasting statue-bases, we can presume that the standing bare male was the most common type of image. Commemorative statues of jocks, as of military heroes and political leaders, were to be seen in every metropolis and wherever competitions were held in Greece: some in action, others merely standing, naked as in competition, one manus raised to the master ‘s garland, or keeping a strigil or a palm-branch. Three different groups of marble pedimental figures were carved for the temple of the nymph Aphaia on the island of Aegina near Athens ( Munich, Glyptothek ) . They include a scope of manners produced during a 20-year period ( 500 – 480 BCE ) , at the clip when Greece was under changeless menace of coup d'etat by the Persian Empire. The to the full 3-dimensional figures in these luxuriant conflict scenes are carved to one graduated table, with the exclusion of the colossal images of Athena supervising the conflict from the Centre of each pediment. Indeed, the many places that can be used for a conflict scene are good suited to the triangular confines of a pediment. Two fallen warriors illustrate the differences between the earlier and later manners. The earlier one reaches about jauntily for the sticker stuck between his ribs, his face adorned with an Archaic smiling ; while the ulterior one is clearly deceasing, his caput set, his drooping organic structure supported merely b y the carpus still fixed in its shield-strap. The extended usage of added bronze characteristics on these figures recall mentions in the ancient literary beginnings to a celebrated bronze metal that was produced on this island. Pliny relates that the Athenians introduced a new usage when in the late sixth century BCE they set up two statues marking existent people, and did so at public disbursal ( Natural History 34. 17 ) . The bronzy Tyrant-Slayers stood in the Agora at Athens until they were carried off by the Persians in the class of destructing the metropolis in 480 BCE. Just three old ages subsequently, the Athenians set up another brace of striding assailing Tyrant-Slayers. Finally, Alexander the Great ( 336 – 323 BCE ) or one of his replacements reclaimed the original brace, and put them beside the others in the metropolis Centre ( ancient marble transcripts in Naples, Mus. Arch. Naz. ) . The rise of the Classical manner is normally dated to 480 BCE, when the Persians were resolutely repulsed from Greece, ten old ages after their first lay waste toing invasion of the Grecian mainland. Contemplations of the Grecian triumphs over the savages may be seen in the pick of fabulous subjects-Greeks get the better ofing non-Greeks-that continued to be used for architectural sculpture during the fifth century. Well-groomed fine-looking Grecian young persons fight wild-haired ripening centaurs in the early Classical marble sculptures from the west pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia ( c. 460 BCE ; Olympia Mus. ) . Relationships between organic structures and curtain are explored, complicated groups of figures are portrayed in overdone actions, and persons reveal a modicum of emotional response to physical quandaries. In blunt contrast to this manic activity, the quiet figures in the east pediment are fixing for the chariot race between Pelops and Oenom & A ; auml ; us, who se fatal result would hold been known by every visitant to Olympia. After the race, Pelops was to go the eponymic swayer of southern Greece, the Peloponnese. Phidias designed far more idealised sculptures to decorate the Parthenon in Athens, whose edifice histories, inscribed in rock, day of the month the undertaking between 448 and 432 BCE. By their huge Numberss, and by the scope of topics illustrated, these sculptures make a public statement about the glorification of the metropolis. They are used today to represent the high Classical manner. The 92 metopes around the exterior of the edifice represent struggles between Greeks and Trojans, Amazons, and centaurs, and between the Greek Gods and the giants ( 447 – 442 BCE ; London, BM ) . Above the metopes, the marble figures in the pediments, carved to the full in the unit of ammunition, illustrate the birth of Athena, the metropolis ‘s eponymic goddess ( on the E ) , and the competition between Athena and Poseidon over the metropolis of Athens ( on the West ) ( 438 – 432 BCE ; London, BM ) . These monolithic figures are vernal and idealised, their significance describ ed without emotion, but in footings of inordinately expressive curtain and of perfected anatomy. Within the colonnade, the idealised figures of the frieze around the temple ‘s cella stand for a non-mythological event, one that was familiar to all Athenians-they move in ranks around the edifice in the Panathenaic emanation to honour Athena ‘s birthday, the caput of the emanation holding before a relaxed gathering of sitting Olympic divinities ( 442 – 438 BCE ; London, BM ) . The colossal chryselephantine ( gold and tusk ) statue of Athena Parthenos ( the virgin ) that stood within the temple, known today merely from ancient descriptions and small-scale reproductions, exemplified the stateliness, sublimity, and self-respect of Phidias ‘s work ( Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Isocrates 3 ) . In fact, chryselephantine, the richest and most coveted stuff for cult statues, was a forte of Phidias, as were prodigious statues and cult images. His most celebrated work in this medium was a immense statue of Zeus for the temple of Zeus at Olympia, which was greatly admired, and came to be hailed as one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient universe. Both Phidias and Polyclitus of Argos, the best-known creative persons of their twenty-four hours, worked in chryselephantine, bronze, and marble. And, as with the edifice histories for the Parthenon, records for the production of Phidias ‘s colossal bronze Athena for the Athenian Acropolis ( Athens, Epigraphical Mus. ) indicate that a successful creative person was non entirely responsible for the originative thought behind a statue, but besides hired the staff and supervisors for the completion of the undertaking. Indeed, in ancient Greece, one word-techn & A ; eacute ; -was used to intend art, trade, and accomplishment. Polyclitus, a coeval of both Myron and Phidias, was the most famed sculpturer of his clip. His forte was athletic statuary, and he was extensively praised for his bronze statue of the Doryphorus ( Spear-Bearer ) , which, like his treatise on that work, he called the Canon, whence comes the modern usage of that word. Pliny says that Polyclitus was a challenger of Myron, both in his pick of Delian bronze over Aeginetan bronze and in the manner of statuary which he produced ( for two of the legion Roman marble transcripts, see Naples, Mus. Arch. Naz. , and Minneapolis, Inst. of Arts ) . Indeed, Polyclitus worked chiefly in bronze, and he was said to hold perfected the accomplishment of sculpture ( Pliny, Natural History 34. 55 ) . Of peculiar involvement to bookmans has been his concern with symmetria, as explained in his treatise and exemplified in the Doryphorus. Though both the book and the statue are lost, symmetria seemingly refers to the precise mathematical proportions of the par ts of a statue to one another. The proportions developed by Polyclitus were considered so right that other creative persons copied them infinitely, in the hope that they excessively would accomplish flawlessness in their work. There are many ancient reproductions of the Doryphorus, in the signifier of full statues and of flops, in marble and in bronze, non to advert the many athletic statues and portrayal statues which emulated that celebrated work. The troubles inherent in modern efforts to measure an original from a reproduction are apparent when one considers that the ‘copy ‘ is frequently in another signifier or another medium than the original. For illustration, a bronzy caput cast atop a herm and found in a Roman Villa is unmistakably that of the Doryphorus, but it is inscribed ‘Apollonius, the boy of Archius, the Athenian, made this ‘ ( Naples, Mus. Arch. Naz. ) . Praxiteles and Lysippus are the two names that dominate histories of 4th-century sculpture. The closest we can come to the lost plants of Praxiteles is through the about 60 lasting versions of his celebrated Aphrodite of Cnidus, said to hold been the first statue of a bare adult female of all time made, and to hold been modelled after Praxiteles ‘ lover Phryne. The painted marble statue of Aphrodite was, harmonizing to Pliny, one of two that Praxiteles carved, the other being draped, following tradition. The people of Cos chose the cloaked image, but the Cnidians purchased the nude, which became far more celebrated ( Natural History 36. 20 ) . The large-scale reproductions show a plump but less-than-feminine bare adult female half-heartedly covering her venereal country with one manus, while the other Lashkar-e-Taibas slip her cast-off garment, which cascades over a hydria ( water-jar ) standing at her side ( e.g. Vatican Mus. ) . The statues of Erotes, of Apollo murdering a li zard, of lecher, and others that have been ascribed to Praxiteles on the strength of the literary testimonia are all debatable, as is the Hermes with the babe Dionysus ( Olympia Mus. ) , which was one time widely thought to be an original work by the creative person, but which is far more likely to be a creative activity of Hellenistic or Roman day of the month. Lysippus was the tribunal portrait painter for Alexander the Great, and his celebrated portrayal of the swayer, though based upon the tradition of heroic standing figures, is a typical type. The accent that Lysippus is said to hold placed upon the bend of Alexander ‘s caput, on the regard, and on the sense of power, with one manus outstretched, the other raised to keep a spear, were common features of honorary statues produced during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. For much of the fourth century, the production of bronze statuary was dominated by the Sicyonian workshop of Lysippus and his household. Lysippus produced non merely portrayals of Alexander and his friends, but besides works like an Apoxyomenus ( athlete grating himself with a strigil: one Roman marble version in Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) , a bibulous miss playing a flute, a twosome of runing groups, assorted chariot groups, a portrayal of Socrates, and a lecher. There is no inquiry that his manner was really influential, and he was besides a fecund creative person. Literary mentions to his holding worked straight from nature, therefore bettering the art of portrayal, are likely derived from streamlined production processes that were developed in the household metalworks, which would hold both improved similitudes and speeded production, to run into the turning demand for his popular bronzes. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus ( modern Bodrum ) was the name given the grave of Mausolus, the Persian governor of Caria ( d. 353 BCE ) . The immense rectangular edifice, crowned by a prodigious four-horse chariot keeping portrayal statues of Mausolus and his married woman ( height c. 3 m/10 foot ; London, BM ) , was one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient universe. The graven friezes decorating the edifice or its dais were carved by some of the great creative persons of the 4th century-Scopas, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and Leochares. Authorship can non now be assigned with any certainty to lasting frieze-blocks, but the topics depicted did non go from established traditions, and included a centauromachy, an Amazonomachy, and a chariot race. ( Many of the surviving sculptures are now in London, BM. ) Alexander ‘s regulation ( d. 323 BCE ) marks the terminal of the Classical period. The Hellenic period lasted until Octavian ‘s licking of Antony at Actium in 31 BCE. The Classical stylistic tradition continued, as did the demand for public memorials and spiritual dedications. The Attalid dynasty at Pergamum in Mysia ( Asia Minor ) commemorated decisive triumphs over the savages ( the Gauls ) in the 170s and 160s BCE by constructing an communion table to Zeus on their acropolis which was decorated with a frieze exemplifying the conflict between the Gods and the giants. Carved in high and dramatic alleviation, the frieze is a consummate illustration of the alleged ‘Hellenistic Baroque ‘ manner ( Berlin, Pergamum Mus. ) . The dramatic action, the emotional looks, the dramatic chiaroscuro of the deeply carved inside informations, the detonation of figures beyond the boundaries of the frieze, and the multiple textures of wings, graduated tables, curtain, and flesh , do these reliefs a circuit de force, intriguing for their unexpected and thorough inside informations. But the topic and the groupings of figures are non wholly advanced: they are besides a witting remembrance of the 5th-century Parthenon in Athens, with its pointed mentions to the Greeks ‘ mob of the savages ( the Persians ) in 480 BCE. Here excessively, Athena was the defender of the metropolis. Pergamum, like Athens, was a cultural capital, and its library was 2nd merely to the great library in Alexandria: the Gigantomachy is encyclopaedic and all participants are included, their names inscribed for those who might be unsure of the iconography. At the same clip, new types of statues and new manners were introduced to fulfill the quickly turning market for statuary among private proprietors. Those who had seen Lysippus ‘ portrayals of Alexander wanted their ain portrayals cast. As the market grew, people came to desire statues for their places and gardens. There were statues for everyone, for every context. Popular figure types could be modified to accommodate a peculiar demand or desire, but images that were one of a sort were besides available. A purchaser could take a subject for a peculiar context, or purchase an Archaizing kouros, a reproduction of the celebrated Aphrodite of Cnidus, or a more modern-day image of Aphrodite seting a aureate necklace. Certain popular types, like the kiping Eros, had such broad entreaty that discrepancies were produced in bronze, marble, and terracotta, in all sizes, and were sold all over the Mediterranean, Europe, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Deities that were represented were non needfully devotional, and new 1s were introduced to suit new involvements. Aphrodite at her lavatory was widely sold, as were lechers, nymphs, Hermaphrodites, Hypnus, Pan, the Eastern boy-god Attis, and the Egyptians Isis and Horus/Harpocrates. The ordinary, the alien, and the grotesque gained in popularity: aliens, amusing histrions, and street people. There were bronzy images of celebrated philosophers, and of people dancing, stooping, wrestle, and sleeping, including the immature, old, malnourished, and deformed. In bronze, cosmetic inside informations were emphasized, patination and picture were common, and characteristics such as eyes, dentitions, lips, mammillas, filets, and curtain decorations were really frequently in laid in Cu, Ag, and niello. Major Hellenistic Centres of production included Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, in add-on to Greece proper. Rome became a major market, and some Grecian craftsmen established workshops in Italy. Such a widespread Koine grew up that troubles in set uping chronology and in acknowledging regional differences among plants produced in the Hellenistic/early Roman period are host. Stylistic dating is impossible, for Hellenistic plants may be versions of Classical or Archaic works or genres. Two shipwrecks dating to the early first century BCE give a good sense of the trade at that clip. Both went down along the path between Greece to Italy, and both were found by sponge fishermen. A ship found off the island of Anticythera was transporting assorted marble and bronzy sculptures, runing in day of the month from the fourth century BCE to about 100 BCE. The marbles include a Hercules of the comparatively common ‘Farnese ‘ type ( see Farnese Hercules ) , the first illustration of whic h has been ascribed by bookmans to Lysippus, and two statues of Aphrodite, two of Hermes, and a Zeus, an Apollo, Achilles, Odysseus, an oil-pourer, Equus caballuss, seated work forces, a helmeted adult male, young persons, and terpsichoreans, possibly all of them from popular production lines ( discoveries are in Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) . The 2nd ship, discovered off the seashore of modern Tunisia, contained a huge lading of luxury points. There were marble craters ( blending bowls ) and candelabrum, statuary, flops, alleviations, column capitals and bases, and 60 to 70 marble column shafts. The bronzes included statuary and furnishings-a statue of a winged Eros, a caput of Dionysus on a herm ( rectangular shaft ) , and big figurines of Eros playing a lyre, of three dancing midget, a lecher, an histrion, Hermes, and a Canis familiaris. There were hanging lamps, in the signifier of hermaphroditic figures, a figure of vass, a mirror, and the bronze legs and adjustments for more than 20 dining sofas ( discoveries are in Tunis, Mus. National du Bardo ) . The ladings of these two ships illustrate the scope of marketable types and manners of images that were being produced in workshops throughout the Mediterranean during the late Hellenistic period.